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Armstrong, A. and C. Casement (2000). The Child and the Machine: How Computer Put Our Children's Education at Risk. Beltville, Maryland, Robins Lane Press. This book goes in-depth to many issues dealing with the push to use computers in schools. It raises many questions that seem to point to facts that point to computers having detrimental effects on children. It references studies that back up their concerns while it raises certain caveats with computers and their pervasiveness in schools. Based on a review by Chris Zirkle, Ph.D., he summarizes the last chapter thus: "The final chapter, "Finding Technology's Place," seriously questions any benefits from computer use in education. Students need more interactions with teachers and fellow students, not less. The computer isolates learners. Teachers are already overburdened; keeping up with constant technological change is one more thing to do. Instead of spending fortunes on computers, money would be better spent on hiring more teachers to reduce class size and expand programs in the arts…" As with television, which studies have shown have a negative effect, computers also have this potential, because they are a multimedia technology. Not enough studies have been done that can attest to the benign and or educational value of computers. This book, because it centers on the negative aspects of computers is a good read, in order to see both sides of the story. Baylor, A. L. and D. Ritchie (2002). "What factors facilitate teacher skill, teacher morale, and perceived student learning in technology-using classrooms?" Computers & Education 39(4): 395-414. This article was a study conducted in 95 classrooms. The study was to investigate the impact of seven factors: planning, leadership, curriculum alignment, professional development, technology use, teacher openness to change, and teacher non-school computer use. These seven factors would be correlated with five dependent measures between teachers and students - the teachers' computer skills (competency and integration), their morale, the way they saw students learn, and the way they saw students acquire higher order thinking skills. The conclusions centered around the openness of teachers to change, which was found to be a critical variable in predicting certain outcomes. Teachers who were open to change appeared to easily adopt new technologies in aiding students' learning. The more they used the technology, the more their skills increased. Yet, since it is a personal trait, it is difficult to influence. Furthermore, administrators who pushed for technology was another positive variable in predicting implementation and the use of technologies within the schools, and the key element was that these administrators also used the technology themselves. The main finding was that teachers were the ones that made the use of technology happen, and not policymakers or administrators. If the teachers made the decision to use the technology, then technology was found to be effective. Hogarty, K. Y., T. R. Lang, et al. (2003). "Another Look At Technology Use in Classrooms: The Development and Validation of an Instrument to Measure Teachers' Perceptions." Education and Psychological Measurement 63(1): 139-162. This article covers a study and research that would help in the development of an instrument of measurement in evaluating the use of technology in classrooms. "The primary goal of this research was to develop and validate an instrument that would provide data to foster a better understanding of how educators and students use technology in the classroom". Paper-based surveys and web-based were produced and used in the study. The conclusions were that the paper-based instrument showed slightly more reliability. The article seems to be about evaluating technology in the classroom, but really the results were of little importance, because in actuality, only the validity of the instrument was of utmost concern. Would it not have been valid to entertain the idea of asking within the survey if participants would rather do the survey on paper or on the web, and why? Furthermore, the very fact that they are using technology to survey teachers about their comfort with technology in the classroom seems to indicate a lack of common sense or understanding concerning the survey. If teachers are not comfortable with technology, they would be even more anxious trying to take this survey using technology.
Romeo, G., S. Edwards, et al. (2003). "Touching the Screen: Issues Related to the Use of Touchscreen Technology in Early Childhood Education." British Journal of Education Technology 34(3): p329-39. This article covers research done in classrooms in Melbourne, Australia, with the intent of studying the use of touch screen technology in early childhood and junior primary settings. The areas studied were developmental issues (improved use of the technology), input device preference, technical issues (if any), individual differences in the way children used the touch screen, and issues of collaboration. The article is of interest because, even in this simple implementation of this technology, observations showed that the teachers do play a key role in how the technology is used in the classroom. The gateway to the classroom is the teacher. For example, one teacher kept the touch screen at her desk, thus making it an inconvenience, and also inaccessible to the children. Other teachers set up the technology within the children's learning area, giving them free access. What did matter was the lack of software that could work properly with the touch screen. Thus, this shows another instance that, while technology is implemented, it is not thoroughly thought through. Issues could be eliminated before they became issues. Sanchez, N. A. and P. Nichols (2003). Teachers, technology, and policy: What have we learned? Washington, DC, Annual Meeting of the Holmes Partnership: 1-9. This article is a summarization of the integration of technology in urban elementary schools that were involved with Professional Development Schools (PDSs). Project activities centered on: supporting the rooting of technology integration into school culture and teachers' efforts to integrate technology into their classrooms and strengthening the PDS partnership. Three factors were critical to the project: organizational strategies, professional development, and research activities. The project study emphasizes the teachers' ownership of their learning by inquiry based research, through professional development which was required, and open discussions, which seemed to provide the teachers with the knowledge, skills, and confidence needed to use and implement technology in their classrooms. The degree and complexity of the technology is a big factor for teachers. When teachers own the process, are active participants, and can control things, they are more likely to use the technology. Since the goal was to integrate technology in the classroom, this project had a successful objective achievement. The point to consider is, of course, the type of technology being implemented and the level of complexity. If this had been a study done in the secondary level, things probably would have looked very different. Most of the technology used in elementary is basic, and most of the time it is easy to use, because it is usually designed for children; even the technology or software used by teachers is simple. While with secondary technology, the complexity varies, as it very much depends on the subject and the purpose of the technology or software. Thirumurthy, V. and N. Sundaram (2003). "Computers for Yound Children in India." Childhood Education 79(5): 307-313. India is experiencing the push of integrating technology into their public schools, with donations by corporate sponsors. Private schools can provide greater access to technology. Higher educational institutions are the ones that receive more funding by large corporations or wealthy charities/philanthropic individuals/organizations. This article or research into the state of technology use in schools in India was done several ways. Interviews were conducted with parents, grandparents, teachers, and principals from India. The article covers some historical background of schools and technology, the schools' systems. Issues such as when children should be exposed to computers are raised, yet many in India recognize computers to be valuable tools in teaching the basics. Of particular interest is an experimental project reported in this article, conducted by Dr. Mitra, Director of the Center for Research in Cognitive Systems at the National Institute of Information Technology Limited (NIIT), which he called "Minimally Invasive Education". He gave access to a computer and the Internet to slum kids in a neighborhood. The children immediately began using it and learning intuitively. "The project aroused the children's natural curiosity and motivated them to problem solve, cooperate with others, and take responsibility for their own learning." The push of parents is for their children is to become programmers or use the computer as a career. There are many hurdles, yet the fundamental one is the gap between the 'haves' and the 'have-nots'. In contrast to "The Child and the Machine: How Computers Put Our Children's Education at Risk", India sees more in the direction of the benefits that could be reaped with the use of computers in their educational system. Zirkle, C. (2002). Book Review of "The Child and the Machine: How Computers Put Our Children's Education at Risk", Tech Directions Books/Prakken Publications, Inc. 2005: Book review done by the author about the book, "The Child and the Machine: How Computers Put Our Children's Education at Risk". This book review summarizes each chapter, giving an overview of what is covered in the book. Jose Saldivar Spring - CECS 6220 TTI